The Paris Peace Conference is one of the great set-pieces of modern history and the resulting Versailles Settlement is a common topic at AS and A Level. You need a thorough knowledge of the contents of the treaties that comprise the Settlement, and of the interpretations that seek to make sense of them. You must also be familiar with the negotiations that preceded them and with their consequences. It is best, therefore, to study Versailles as an integral party of European diplomacy, 1918-39.

It is essential to acquire a sound factual knowledge before attempting to answer particular essay questions. That means compiling a detailed set of notes. These should be most thorough on the Treaty of Versailles itself; but do not forget that the umbrella term ‘Settlement’ includes the treaties with the other defeated Powers as well. (You will need precise details but also convenient generalisations, for instance on the percentage of her European landmass that Germany lost.) You also need to be aware of the general context in which the treaties were produced, including the unexpected end of the war and the atmosphere in Paris, and of the process by which they were hammered out.

a. How harshly was Germany treated? Obviously you need to know the relevant facts - but this is not an entirely factual question because it involves value-judgements. Try to see Treaty of Versailles through the eyes of the Germans and also of the Allies. Why did the former think the treaty too harsh, and why did the French think it too lenient? Can you explain why many historians think it was both too harsh and too lenient?

b. What role did the ‘Big Three’ play in the formulation of the Settlement? Did Clemenceau favour revenge and Wilson idealistic conciliation, with the unprincipled Lloyd George supporting first one and then the other? Beware of simplistic generalisations here. Note the degree to which the moralistic Woodrow Wilson believed that Germany should be punished, and be aware also of the political constraints on the three leaders.

c. How did the overall settlement affect European geo-politics? In other words, stand aside from particular details and study the new map of Europe. Was Germany in a relatively weak or in a potentially very strong position, compared with its neighbours?

d. To what extent was the Settlement a triumph for nationalism? Henceforth, fewer people lived under governments which they regarded as ‘foreign’; but draw up a list of minorities within particular countries.

e. Why did the Settlement break down? This is a key issue. Draw up a list of factors. Which relate to the flaws of the treaties, which to other factors, including the effects of the war and unexpected events after 1919?

Once you’ve grasped the basic issues, you can ask the sort of awkward questions which test out, and add to, historical knowledge. These include the following:

a. What sort of treaty do you think the Germans might have imposed, had they won? It is instructive to make comparisons with the Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918).

b. How far were the peacemakers at Versailles merely rubber-stamping territorial changes that had already taken place?

c. To what extent were the peacemakers reacting to fear of German revival, and to what extent to fear of the spread of Communism?

d. Which provisions of the Settlement were not put into effect? Might the treaties have been more effective if properly enforced?

e. Why did the Americans refuse to ratify Versailles? How important was their refusal?

f. Why was the League of Nations, whose covenant was written into all the treaties, such a failure? Was this due simply to the way in which it was utilised?

g. Why was there such a revulsion of feeling against Versailles in Britain and other countries? In what ways did this revaluation fuel the policy of appeasement?

h. How far had the Settlement been peacefully revised by the time Hitler came to power in 1933? How far was his foreign policy designed merely to return Germany to its 1914 frontiers?

i. To what extent was the Second World War a continuation of the First?