Victorian politics is about the way in which Britain’s political system, which had evolved over centuries and was dominated by a landowning elite, found itself under pressure to adjust to the economic, social and demographic changes unleashed by the industrial revolution, and the new trends in economic, political and scientific thinking that ran alongside it. The successful student will understand what changed and why, while not losing sight of aspects of the political system that did not change.

First vital steps

Though Queen Victoria reigned 1837-1901 the real starting date for the study of Victorian politics is 1832 as it saw the passing of the Reform Act, the first major breech with the eighteenth century constitution. By extending the right to vote to the expanding middle class it ensured that the Victorian political system remained dominated by the interests of property owners. Though subsequent reforms admitted other social groups to the electoral process (skilled urban workers in 1867, rural workers in 1884), the basic characteristics of the post-1832 system, including the social background of MPs and conceptions of the economic role of the State, remained entrenched till the end of Victoria’s reign.

Fundamental issues

a. The Constitution. Note the relative position of the House of Commons, Lords and Monarchy. Where did ultimate power lie? Was the Commons sovereign? How much power did the Lords retain? Could the Monarchy still exercise any of the powers it theoretically possessed? The Cabinet was the centre of executive government: how effectively was it held to account by Parliament?

b. Electoral reform. The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884 extended the right to vote and redistributed seats to the expanding regions of Britain. What motivated these changes: fear of revolution or confidence in loyalty of the masses? How extensive were the changes and what was their impact on politics? Was Britain a democracy by 1901?

c. Party system. The model of a two-party system doesn’t fit for most of the Victorian period. Parties were loosely organised and prone to split (the Tories in 1846, the Liberals in 1886). Smaller groupings like the Radicals, Irish and Peelites often held the balance of power. Why were political allegiances so fluid? How stable were governments as a result? Why did party organisation strengthen over time?

d. Whigs and Tories. These were the two main political parties. What was the social and ideological basis of each? On what issues did they disagree? How did the Whigs evolve into the Liberals? And how did the Tories, a party associated with the landed elite, survive and prosper into the late nineteenth century?

e. Economic policy. Victorian attitudes to economic policy were dominated by laissez-faire orthodoxy: free trade, minimal state, balanced budgets. Did these ideas reflect the success of the economy - or did they promote it? Did laissez-faire thinking mean the governing class were indifferent to the welfare of the poor?

f. Pressure for change. The activities of protest movements should be understood: the Chartists, the Anti-Corn Law League, Reform League, Fabians and trade unions. Why were some extra-parliamentary movements successful - and others not? Was Britain ever close to revolution? How was the potential threat from the organised working class accommodated?

High grade issues

a. Ideology. How far did ideas about economy, society and political organisation shape political practice? The impact of the utilitarian ideas of Bentham and economists like Smith and Malthus needs to be understood. By the end of the century there were growing calls for the State to intervene in the economy. What accounted for this change?

b. Religion. This had a big impact on Victorian politics. The established Church of England considered itself under pressure - why? How did the Conservatives seek to profit from this? Why did Nonconformists generally support the Liberals - and what political impact did they have? Did politics become more secular over time?

c. Foreign and imperial policy. Britain’s reliance on overseas trade necessitated a strong navy. What were the implications for defence spending? Did British foreign policy reflect underlying principles - or was it only driven by self-interest? Why did the idea of empire become so potent after 1870? Note the role of individuals like Palmerston, Disraeli and Salisbury.

d. Ireland. This was the running sore of Victorian politics. What was the essence of the Irish Question and why did successive governments fail to resolve it? Why did Gladstone fail to ‘pacify’ Ireland and why did the Liberals split in the process?

e. Press and public opinion. An expanding national press carried the deeds of politicians to a wider public while at the same time bringing a vocal public opinion into existence. How far were politicians like Gladstone and Chamberlain able to manipulate opinion - or were they governed by its agendas? Did public exposure enhance the status of Westminster politicians - or did it undermine their independence and subject them to popular pressures?

Reading Suggestions. The nineteenth century has generated much historical literature and the following readings will at least help the student follow up some of the issues discussed above. An insightful overview of the whole field is provided by C. Matthew (ed.), The Nineteenth Century (2000). R. Stewart, Party and Politics 183 0-1852 (1989) gives a solid account of politics in the first half of the Victorian period; A. Hawkins, British Party Politics 1852-1886 (1998) carries the story into the later Victorian period. In-depth studies of the political process are provided by M. Bentley, Politics without Democracy (1996) and T.A. Jenkins, Parliament, party and politics in Victorian Britain (1996). The latter includes a chapter on the Victorian constitution and from this the reader may advance to W. Bagehot’s classic The English Constitution (1867). For the Conservative party, see B. Coleman, Conservatism and the Conservative party on 19th Century Britain (1988) and for the Liberals, T.A. Jenkins, The Liberal Ascendancy 1830-1886 (1994). Several of the major political figures have attracted biographies that provide enjoyable ways into the period: N. Gash, Sir Robert Peel (1972), R. Blake, Disraeli (1966), H.C.G Matthew, Gladstone 1809-1898 (1997), and A. Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (1999).