The Origins of the First World War 
by Dr Robert Pearce
University College of St Martin, Lancaster


The nature of the topic

The origins of the First World War have fascinated historians ever since the conflict first started, so much so that it would probably take a lifetime to read through all the secondary sources available. Such is the complexity of the topic that there is no agreement among scholars about either who was to blame or whether the causes of the war are to be found in international affairs, domestic politics, economic rivalries or the climate of opinion. Nor is it clear exactly when a study of this topic should begin. Therefore you should adopt a wide approach, in the confidence that several relevant questions may appear on the average exam paper.

The vital first steps

You need a knowledge of international affairs from 1871 onwards, though with greater depth as 1914 is approached. Pay particular attention to the various crises, for instance over Morocco and in the Balkans, and especially that triggered by the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Draw up your own chronological table, being especially detailed for June-August 1914. Next compile notes on the political and economic situation in the relevant countries, stopping at the end of each to decide how this may have encouraged entry into war. Also, make notes on the ‘unspoken assumptions’ of the time, particularly nationalism, social Darwinism and the popular images of both war and foreigners. Then you should be in a position to study the main interpretations which have been put forward to make sense of the events.

Fundamental issues

You should use your knowledge to focus on important analytical issues, which are really sub-divisions of the topic.

a. What role did the alliance system play? You will need knowledge not just of the alliances but of the mutual suspicion bred by secret diplomacy. Were the alliances in fact operated in the July Crisis, or did states consult their interests rather than their treaties?
b. Is there any pattern to the crises after 1890? Was there one particular troublemaker? If you single out Germany, test your view by searching for evidence that - on some occasions - the Germans actually calmed the situation.
c. How likely was a major war by the start of 1914? You will need to judge the significance of the crises before this date, and this will, to a large degree, hinge on how each was ended. Also, do not neglect the improvement in international affairs in the first months of 1914. 
d. How far can you accept the view of Fritz Fischer that there was a ‘drive to war’ from 1912 onwards? Does the September Memorandum confirm that Germany was ‘grasping at world power’? What else might explain the annexationist aims in Bethmann Hollweg’s Memorandum?
e. Might the Germans, in July 1914, have risked war in order to solve the political deadlock in the Reichstag? What evidence is there that they did?
f. Estimate the responsibility of each of the participants for (i) the deterioration in international affairs before 1914 and (ii) the actual outbreak of war. This exercise will prove a useful counter to the assumption that attention should focus primarily on Germany.

High-grade issues

If the above issues have proved problematic (as they should!), you will benefit from grappling with further questions.

a. How significant was the Anglo-German naval race? Would the naval race feature prominently in an essay on the outbreak of war?
b. What interests did the Great Powers have in the Balkans?
c. Did the Germans feel so ‘encircled’ in 1914 that they launched a ‘preventive war’. If this is so, does it alter your allocation of 'war guilt'?
d. Similarly, what happens to ‘war guilt’ if you decide that the war was essentially an accident?
e. In what ways may our knowledge of the personalities of the Kaiser and Bethmann Hollweg contribute to an understanding of their policies?
f. How important were the generals and their military plans during the July Crisis? 
g. Estimate the effects of public opinion on the actions of each of the Great Powers.
h. Finally, consider the possibility that no verdict is possible on the crucial issue of responsibility for causing the war. Can we reconstruct people's motives with any certainty?

Reading suggestions

This topic is covered in all the popular A-Level series. But no single volume can hope to do justice to its complexity, and it is essential to read widely. Try dipping into the Macmillan ‘Making of the Twentieth Century’ volumes which focus on the role of a single country: at present there are studies of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France, Britain and Italy.