Benjamin Disraeli’s political career, which extended over the years 1837 to 1881, generated much controversy at the time and continues to provoke debate amongst historians. Disraeli is not merely a fascinating character; he played a key role in a dynamic phase in British history. For success in this topic you need to situate Disraeli’s personal agenda within the shifting balance of Victorian political and social forces: to understand how Disraeli shaped events and how events shaped Disraeli.

There are three steps towards understanding Disraeli’s place in Victorian history. First, appreciate the motives, ideas, and tactical thinking of Disraeli. Second, place him within the framework of the Victorian Conservative Party and the challenges it was facing in an age of rapid change. Third, relate Disraeli’s Conservatism to the wider forces of Victorian politics - in particular the role of Gladstone and the Liberal party, the expansion of the working and middle classes, and the effects of electoral reform. This sounds like a tall order. Fortunately Disraeli’s career can be broken down into more bite-size portions.

a. Disraeli’s early career 1832-1841. Having campaigned as a Radical, Disraeli entered the Commons as a Conservative. How plausible was his argument that the Conservatives were defenders of the interests of the people? Was this a genuine belief - or a justification for his switch in allegiance? What was Disraeli’s attitude towards the New Poor Law and the Chartist movement?

b. Clash with Peel 1841-46. Why did Disraeli attack Peel? Was it to advance his career, or were real issues at stake? What was the ideology of Young England and how seriously did Disraeli regard it? Note Disraeli’s trilogy of novels: what was their function and what message did they contain? Why did Disraeli lead the backbench rebellion in defence of the Corn Laws: belief in agricultural protection? Anger at Peel’s betrayal of party? Personal ambition?

c. Opposition leader 1846-1874. How successful were Disraeli’s attempts to build a Conservative majority? Did Disraeli’s tactics help or hinder his party? Was Disraeli an asset or liability? Was Disraeli’s pursuit of a policy of moderate Liberal reform an effective strategy? Was there an alternative?

d. The Reform Act 1867. Why did the Conservatives introduce a Reform Act - fear of public unrest; desire to hang on to power; belief that it was in the party’s interests? Was the extension of the vote to the urban working class a realisation of Disraeli’s long-standing commitment to Tory Democracy - or the opportunistic result of the need to maintain a Commons majority?

e. Prime Minister 1874-1880. Focus here on two issues. First, social reform. Did the social reforms of 1874-76 reflect a principled commitment to the well being of the poor? Or were they, as historians often argue, a pragmatic response to immediate problems? How far was Disraeli responsible for the reforms, and how much was due to the initiatives of individual ministers? Did the reforms make much difference to the lives of ordinary people? Second, foreign policy. What were Disraeli’s objectives in the Eastern Crisis of 1876-78 and how far did he realise them? Did he achieve ‘Peace with Honour’? Did Disraeli possess an imperial policy and if so was it to expand the empire or only consolidate it? How much responsibility should Disraeli bear for the failures in South Africa and Afghanistan?

f. Defeat and Death 1880-81. Why did the Conservatives loose in 1880? Was it due to governmental policy failures, or economic recession, or the revival of the Liberals under Gladstone? Was Disraeli’s career, ultimately, a failure?

a. Did Disraeli possess a coherent Conservative ideology? Was his thinking consistent over his career? What was the function of Disraeli’s ideas - a basis for political action or an exercise in rhetoric designed to appeal to the imagination?

b. How much scope for political initiative did Disraeli have? He was distrusted by many Conservatives and until 1868 was subordinate to Lord Derby. Could Disraeli have survived without Derby’s backing? Who did more to shape Conservative policy - Derby or Disraeli? More generally, note that Victorian beliefs in limited government and low taxation precluded active social reform or an aggressive foreign policy.

c. Was Disraeli a consistent imperialist? What about his 1850s remarks that the colonies were ‘millstones around our necks’? How seriously did Disraeli take the Empire?

d. Was Disraeli a Tory Democrat? Did he seriously wish to extend political power to the working class? Can this be reconciled with his views about the benefits of aristocratic rule and paternalist policies?

e. How and why have interpretations of Disraeli changed over time? Why did Conservatives take up Disraeli as an icon, emphasising his commitment to social reform and empire? How have historians since the 1960s undermined these ‘Disraeli myths’?

f. Was there such a thing as Disraelian Conservatism - or was Disraeli’s career a series of tactical decisions driven by ambition?

Further Reading. Several solid accounts of Disraeli’s career exist. E. Feuctwanger’s Disraeli (2000) provides basic narrative, but T.A. Jenkins, Disraeli and Victorian Conservatism (1996) and J. Walton, Disraeli (1990) give greater attention to analytical issues. The serious student will need to look at R. Blake’s classic Disraeli (1966) and should dip into W. Monypenny and G. Buckle’s monumental The Life of Benjamin Disraeli (1910-20). Insights into recent debates concerning Disraeli can be gained from P. Smith, Disraeli: A Brief Life (1996) and the stimulating J. Vincent, Disraeli (1990). A. Hawkins, British Party Politics 1852-1886 (1998) is a good introduction to Victorian politics. For the Conservative party, see B. Coleman, Conservatism and the Conservative party in Nineteenth Century Britain (1988) and R. Blake, The Conservative party from Peel to Thatcher (1985).